Unraveling The Iran-Iraq War: Causes & Consequences

The Iran-Iraq War, a devastating conflict that raged for nearly eight years in the 1980s, remains one of the most brutal and costly conventional wars of the 20th century. Understanding what caused the Iran-Iraq War is crucial for comprehending the complex geopolitical landscape of the Middle East. It was a conflict born from a volatile mix of historical grievances, ideological clashes, territorial ambitions, and regional power struggles, leaving an indelible mark on both nations and the wider world.

Often referred to as the First Persian Gulf War, this prolonged and bloody confrontation between two neighboring powers exacted an immense human toll. Estimates of total casualties range from one million to twice that number, a staggering testament to the ferocity of the fighting. Beyond the tragic loss of life, the war crippled economies, decimated infrastructure, and reshaped regional alliances. To truly grasp the magnitude of this conflict, we must delve into its intricate origins and the multifaceted factors that ignited such a destructive conflagration.

Historical Background of Iran and Iraq

To truly understand what caused the Iran-Iraq War, one must first appreciate the deep-seated historical context that shaped the relationship between these two nations. Iran, historically known as Persia, boasts a rich imperial legacy spanning millennia, distinct from the Arab world. Its identity is rooted in Persian culture and the Shia branch of Islam. Iraq, on the other hand, emerged as a modern state from the remnants of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, largely populated by Arabs, with a significant Shia majority but governed by a Sunni minority.

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The shared border, stretching over 1,400 kilometers, has historically been a source of contention, particularly concerning the Shatt al-Arab waterway (Arvand Rud in Iran), a vital conduit for oil exports for both countries. Control and navigation rights over this strategic estuary were repeatedly disputed, leading to treaties that often favored one side over the other, only to be challenged later. Beyond territorial issues, the historical background of Iran and Iraq also encompasses differing political systems and aspirations for regional dominance, setting the stage for future conflict.

Ancient Roots of Conflict: Shia-Sunni Divide

While not the sole or primary cause, some parts of the conflict's underlying tensions go back to the split in Islam following the death of the Prophet Muhammad. Iran, as the world's largest Shia-majority nation, has historically seen itself as a guardian and promoter of Shia Islam. Following its 1979 revolution, Iran was eager to spread Shia revolutionary fervor to the rest of the Middle East, particularly to Iraq, which had a Shia majority but a secular Sunni-led government. This ideological divergence created a fault line, though the conflict is not typically characterized as a religious war, mainly because there is little evidence to suggest that religious piety was the primary motivator for the broader conflict. Instead, it was more about political power, national security, and regional influence, albeit with religious undertones that exacerbated existing tensions.

The Spark: The 1979 Iranian Revolution

The seismic event that fundamentally altered the regional balance of power and directly contributed to what caused the Iran-Iraq War was the 1979 Iranian Revolution. The overthrow of the Western-backed Shah and the establishment of an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini sent shockwaves across the Middle East. For Iraq's Ba'athist regime, led by Saddam Hussein, this was an alarming development. Saddam's government was secular, Arab nationalist, and predominantly Sunni, despite ruling over a majority Shia population. The rise of a revolutionary, expansionist Shia state on its border posed an existential threat.

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Following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Iraq's Ba'athist regime became increasingly concerned about the spread of Shia revolutionary fervor that threatened its secular Sunni rule. Khomeini openly called for the overthrow of Arab monarchies and secular regimes, including Saddam's, accusing them of being un-Islamic. This rhetoric resonated with Iraq's disenfranchised Shia majority, prompting fears of internal unrest and a potential Iranian-backed uprising. Saddam viewed the new Iran not just as a regional rival but as an ideological enemy determined to destabilize his regime and the entire regional order. This fear was a critical factor in his decision-making process leading up to the invasion.

Iraq's Strategic Calculus: Why Invade?

Saddam Hussein's decision to invade Iran on September 22, 1980, was not impulsive but rather a calculated gamble based on several strategic objectives and perceived opportunities. It examines the causes of Iraq's decision to invade Iran, aiming to achieve a swift victory that would solidify Iraq's position as the dominant power in the Persian Gulf, secure disputed territories, and quash the perceived threat from revolutionary Iran. Saddam believed that Iran, still reeling from its revolution, purged of its military leadership, and isolated internationally, was vulnerable. He saw a window of opportunity to strike a decisive blow.

Territorial Disputes and Border Issues

A significant factor in what caused the Iran-Iraq War was the long-standing territorial disputes, particularly over the Shatt al-Arab waterway. Iraq had consistently sought full control over this vital shipping lane, which it viewed as crucial for its access to the Persian Gulf. The 1975 Algiers Accord, which settled border disputes and granted Iran co-sovereignty over the Shatt al-Arab, was seen by Saddam as an imposed humiliation by the Shah's militarily superior Iran. With the Shah gone, Saddam repudiated the treaty just days before the invasion, claiming the entire waterway as Iraqi territory. While non-territorial conflicts also had key roles, territory has historically been a potent trigger for conflict between the two nations, and reclaiming the Shatt al-Arab was a key objective for Saddam.

Regional Hegemony and Fear of Revolution

Beyond specific territorial claims, Saddam harbored ambitions of establishing Iraq as the leading Arab power in the Gulf, replacing Iran's historical dominance. The weakening of Iran post-revolution presented an ideal opportunity to assert this regional hegemony. Furthermore, as mentioned, Iraq's Ba'athist regime became increasingly concerned about the spread of Shia revolutionary fervor that threatened its secular Sunni rule. Saddam aimed to preemptively neutralize this threat by destabilizing the new Iranian regime, perhaps even facilitating its collapse, and thereby preventing the export of its revolution to Iraq's own Shia population. This combination of territorial ambition, the pursuit of regional leadership, and deep-seated ideological fear provided Saddam with what he believed was a compelling justification for war.

The Opening Salvo: Iraq's Invasion

Active hostilities began with the Iraqi invasion of Iran on September 22, 1980. The war between Iran and Iraq, lasting nearly eight years, commenced with the Iraqi invasion of Iran on 22 September 1980, and ended with the bilateral acceptance of the UN Security Council Resolution 598 on 20 July 1988. Saddam's initial strategy was a swift, decisive victory. In the first stage, Iraq invaded Iran and made rapid progress before being halted in the Iranian desert. Iraqi forces, better equipped and organized at the outset, pushed deep into Iranian territory, capturing key border towns and threatening major oil-producing regions.

However, the anticipated collapse of the Iranian regime did not materialize. Despite internal purges and disarray, the revolutionary government rallied its forces, mobilizing both the regular army and the newly formed Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC). The Iranian population, fueled by revolutionary zeal, mounted a fierce resistance. Iraq's rapid progress soon bogged down in the vastness of the Iranian landscape and the tenacity of its defenders. The initial Iraqi gains, while significant, proved unsustainable in the face of determined Iranian counter-attacks, signaling that this would be no quick war but a prolonged and grinding conflict.

A Brutal Stalemate: The War of Attrition

After the initial Iraqi advance was halted, the war transformed into a brutal war of attrition. By 1982, Iran had recaptured its territories and cut Iraq off from the sea ports, reversing many of Iraq's early gains and even pushing into Iraqi territory. The conflict became characterized by static trench warfare, human wave attacks, and a willingness by both sides to endure immense casualties. The front lines largely stabilized, but fighting remained intense and deadly.

Both sides engaged in the 'war of the cities', killing hundreds of thousands of civilians. This involved missile and aerial bombardments of each other's urban centers, including the capital, Tehran, turning civilian populations into direct targets and further escalating the conflict's brutality. The economic consequences were dire, with reduced oil exports for both nations, leading to significant economic decline and widespread infrastructure damage. The war's prolonged nature and immense human cost became a defining feature, far surpassing Saddam's initial expectations.

The Scourge of Chemical Weapons

One of the most horrifying aspects of the Iran-Iraq War was Iraq's extensive use of chemical weapons. Facing determined Iranian counter-offensives and human wave attacks, particularly in the later stages of the war, Saddam Hussein's regime resorted to prohibited chemical agents. The report details the consequences for both countries, including the extensive use of chemical weapons by Iraq, which inflicted horrific suffering and long-term health problems on Iranian soldiers and civilians alike. Iraq's extensive use of chemical weapons in battles during early 1988, such as at Halabja against Kurdish civilians, was a desperate measure to stem the tide and became a major international scandal, though the international community's response was largely muted at the time. This egregious violation of international law highlighted the extreme lengths to which Iraq was willing to go to avoid defeat.

International Involvement and Shifting Tides

While the Iran-Iraq War was primarily a bilateral conflict, various international actors played significant, albeit often clandestine, roles that influenced its trajectory. Many global powers, particularly Western nations and Arab states in the Gulf, initially viewed the rise of revolutionary Iran with apprehension. They feared the spread of its Islamic ideology and sought to contain its influence. Consequently, many quietly, or sometimes openly, supported Iraq, providing financial aid, intelligence, and military equipment. The United States, for instance, provided intelligence and financial support to Iraq, seeking to prevent an Iranian victory.

Paradoxically, some nations also supplied arms to Iran, often covertly. For example, the Israeli government specifically provided military equipment and military instructors to Iran. This complex web of international involvement underscores the geopolitical stakes involved and how the conflict became a proxy battleground for broader regional and global power dynamics. As the war dragged on, and particularly as Iraq resorted to chemical weapons and attacks on shipping in the Gulf, international pressure for a ceasefire mounted, primarily through the United Nations.

The Path to Ceasefire: UN Resolution 598

The protracted nature of the conflict and its immense human and economic costs eventually led both sides to reconsider their positions. The war between Iran and Iraq, lasting nearly eight years, commenced with the Iraqi invasion of Iran on 22 September 1980, and ended with the bilateral acceptance of the UN Security Council Resolution 598 on 20 July 1988. This resolution, adopted in 1987, called for an immediate ceasefire, withdrawal of forces to international borders, and a comprehensive peace settlement.

Iran initially was reluctant to accept this resolution, viewing it as a premature end to a war it felt it was winning or could still win, and demanding that Iraq be declared the aggressor. However, a combination of factors finally secured its acceptance. These included the devastating impact of a renewed wave of Iraqi missile strikes on Iranian cities, including the capital, Tehran, which brought the war's brutality directly to the civilian population. Furthermore, Iraq's extensive use of chemical weapons in battles during early 1988, coupled with significant military setbacks for Iran on the battlefield and increasing international isolation, made continued fighting unsustainable. Ayatollah Khomeini famously described his decision to accept the ceasefire as "drinking from the poisoned chalice," signifying the profound difficulty and bitter necessity of ending the war.

The Devastating Aftermath of the Iran-Iraq War

The Iran-Iraq War concluded with a ceasefire in 1988, but its consequences reverberated for decades. Fighting was ended by a 1988 ceasefire, though the resumption of normal diplomatic relations and the withdrawal of troops did not take place until 1990, underscoring the deep wounds and mistrust that lingered. The report details the consequences for both countries, including reduced oil exports, economic decline, and significant loss of life and infrastructure damage. Estimates of total casualties range from one million to twice that number, making it one of the deadliest conflicts of the late 20th century. Millions more were displaced or suffered from long-term injuries and psychological trauma.

Economically, both nations were crippled. Billions of dollars in oil revenues were diverted to the war effort, leading to massive debts and a decline in living standards. Infrastructure, particularly in border regions, was extensively damaged. Politically, the war had mixed outcomes. Saddam Hussein, despite failing to achieve his initial objectives, presented himself as a victor to his people, having defended Iraq against the Iranian revolution. However, the war also left Iraq with a massive debt burden and a highly militarized society, which would contribute to future instability, notably the 1990 invasion of Kuwait. For Iran, the war solidified the revolutionary regime's hold on power, albeit at an immense cost. The experience fostered a deep sense of national resilience and self-reliance, but also a lasting suspicion of external powers. The war fundamentally reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East, leaving a legacy of unresolved issues and contributing to future regional conflicts.

The Iran-Iraq War serves as a stark reminder of the catastrophic consequences when historical grievances, ideological fervor, and geopolitical ambitions collide. Understanding what caused the Iran-Iraq War is not merely an academic exercise; it offers crucial insights into the enduring complexities of the Middle East and the devastating human cost of prolonged conflict. The echoes of this brutal war continue to shape the region's dynamics, making its study essential for anyone seeking to comprehend contemporary challenges.

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